Essay Six:
Aristotle and Bostrom
In Ethics, Aristotle presents the fundamental principles of moral goodness and the life of happiness. Aristotle believes that virtues are important for individual wellbeing and the overall quality of society. Aristotle suggests that the purpose of a good and meaningful life is to constantly learn and practice good morals and virtues. Though virtuous actions and ideas, a person will acquire the greatest happiness in the world. Even though this form of true happiness is attainable by all, the majority often chooses immediate pleasure and overlooks the bigger picture. Furthermore, Aristotle argues that even though the purpose for life is to self-improve and pursue happiness, the society should be governed by laws. Such laws will only provide moral foundations and directions, and it should influence personal choice. In Transhumanist Values, Nick Bostrom presents transhumanism as a method to use science and technologies to increase basic human capacities. Bostrom suggests that transhumanism has the ability to improve the quality of life by eliminating involuntary limits. With increased mental and physical capacities, transhumanism will assist individuals to fulfill their natural desire for happiness. Lastly, Bostrom addresses the importance of societal directions, but also advocates for a wide access of enhancement technologies to ensure personal freedom and choice.
Aristotle suggests that the purpose of life is to improve quality of life by developing and practicing moral virtues. Aristotle defines moral virtues as “the quality of acting in the best way in relation to pleasures and pains, and that vice is the opposite” (A 4). Moral virtues are good choices of action that would be most suitable, logical and accepted for a certain situation, while vices are bad actions that could cause other uproars; the ability to choose good choices of action are learned, trained and polished throughout the human lifespan. Aristotle mentions, “Hence the importance of having been definitely trained from childhood to like and dislike the proper things; this is what good education means” (A 3). Education establishes a standard for good and bad; the standard would allow the learner to evaluate their own habits and decide whether it is morally virtuous or not. Education would also encourage the learners to practice virtuous actions and reject the vices. Eventually, the cycle would naturally occur as part of human personality without the assistance of external guidance. Aristotle claims, “we become brave by training ourselves to despise and endure terrors, and we shall be best able to endure terrors when we have come brave” (A 3). While intellectual strength such as virtues should be trained to become permanent, physical strength is a result of intellectual strength. Similar to bravery, a virtuous individual would purposefully train their body to gain strength, and continuously maintain their strength with a balanced exercise and diet. Due to their virtuous mindset, they are motivated to become a better human being. As a result, Aristotle suggests that the constant cycle of learning, practicing and polishing moral virtues to improve personal character, knowledge and physical strength should be the goal for any human beings.
Aristotle thinks that humans have a natural tendency to pursue unique happiness through pleasure. He states, “For pleasure and pain extend throughout the whole of life, and are of great moment and influence for virtue and happiness; since men choose what is pleasant and avoid what is painful '' (A 17). Newborns cannot choose to be born into a wealthy family to ensure a pleasant life, but they embrace what is given to them and make choices to bring themselves the most desirable pleasure. The consistent pursuit of desirable pleasure will result in happiness and joy, which is much preferred than pain or defeat. Meanwhile, there are also many different levels of pleasure that would yield different types of happiness. Aristotle proposes,
“the pleasure is greatest when the sensory faculty is both in the best condition and acting in relation to the best object; and given excellence in the perceived object and the percipient organ, there will always be pleasure when an object to cause it and a subject to feel it are both present” (A 23).
Pleasure is felt during certain desirable activities or sensory inputs, therefore it would be easier for a healthy and able person to feel more pleasure than those who suffer from a lack of physical or intellectual ability. Thus, the goal for each individual differs because of their unique basic capacities and their surrounding environment; some might gain pleasure by becoming rich, while others will receive the greatest pleasure and happiness if they can finally see, hear, or work as an average person. However, physical limitations do not forfeit the pursuit of happiness, but to find alternative happiness. Aristotle claims, “happiness does not consist in pastimes and amusements, but in activities in accordance with virtue” (A 27). Even though pleasure generates from simple amusements or fulfillments, true happiness originates when an individual makes the correct moral choice of action; the reward for a virtuous being is accomplishment and happiness, and that could be accessed by anyone. Even though every human naturally chooses pleasure over pain, true happiness can be obtained by anyone through virtuous actions and righteous motivations.
Aristotle’s model of life centered around self-improvement and pursuit of happiness should be guided by societal laws, but personal choice will determine the final outcome. Aristotle states, “to live temperately and hardily is not pleasant to most men, especially when young; hence the nurture and exercises of the young should be regulated by law… Accordingly we shall need laws to regulate the discipline of adults as well” (A 33). Laws act as public regulations and provide necessary ground and direction toward self-improvement and pursuit of virtuous happiness. The system aims to teach and encourage virtuous acts while punishing unacceptable and harmful vices. However, laws should be established as a general set of principles that individuals follow; they cannot dictate individual choices, or attempt to force citizens to replicate other’s choices. Aristotle claims, “just as some people appear to be their own best doctors, though they could not do any good to someone else” (A 35). Individual choice is guided by laws but controlled by the individual’s unique personality, experience and environment; each person knows best about themselves but not any others. Therefore, it is useless and pointless to establish strict, universal laws for each individual choice. Even though the purpose of life for each human is to improve their own morals and acquire happiness, laws can only educate and guide citizens to establish a virtuous standard. As a result, laws will oversee the general actions to ensure virtues and morality, while individual choices will be the most important factor to self-improve and pursuit of happiness.
Nick Bostrom’s transhumanism reflects Aristotle’s purpose of life. Bostrom argues, “The range of thoughts, feelings, experiences, and activities accessible to human organisms presumably constitute only a tiny part of what is possible” (NB 2). Even though humans have been one of the most superior animals in terms of complexity and power, the biological abilities are still so limited compared to everything nature has offered. The limitation is involuntary, and people have always tried to overcome such involuntary limitations with the help of external assistance. Transhumanism movement sparked as a result of improving technology and knowledge. According to Bostrom, transhumanism hopes that “by responsible use of science, technology, and other rational means we shall eventually manage to become posthuman, beings with vastly greater capacities than present human beings have” (NB 1). The purpose of transhumanism is to incorporate modern technology to overcome the limit of basic human capacities and improve the qualities of life. By eliminating involuntary deaths, illnesses, physical and mental deficiencies, the quality of life will improve, and humanity will be saved. Even though the use of technology and science seems anti- human, Bostrom argues that transhumanist values are just a continuation of humanity’s goal ever since its creation. Bostrom states, “Transhumanists view human nature as a work-in-progress, a half-baked beginning that we can learn to remold in desirable ways. Current humanity need not be the endpoint of evolution” (NB 1). Humanity’s goal has always been to overcome involuntary constraints to survive; humans have been seeking ways to improve their physical and intellectual capabilities to elongate their lifespan for generations. Transhumanist views do not interfere with the goal of humanity, but to support it and improve it with the help of science and technologies.
Transhumanism supports Aristotle’s idea on the natural pursuit of happiness. Bostrom indicates that humans always seek satisfaction, but a lack of will-power and sensibility to pain prevents humans from reaching higher potential. Bostrom states, “we are limited in regard to energy, will-power, and ability to shape our own character in accordance with our ideals. Even such “simple” goals as losing weight or quitting smoking prove unattainable to many” (NB4). Many desirable and beneficial pleasures can be attained, but the journey to attain such happiness often requires pain; lack of will-power and motivation often result in small amusements and fulfillments. As a result, many individuals cannot receive true happiness and pleasure because they naturally choose immediate pleasure over pain; a consistent chain of random pleasures accomplishes nothing but limiting physical and psychological growth. Unfortunately, Bostrom also hints that some desirable pleasures are not accessible to individuals due to lack of sensibility. Bostrom proposes, “Humans also enjoy a variety of special faculties, such as appreciation of music and a sense of humor, and sensibilities such as the capacity for sexual arousal in response to erotic stimuli” (NB 4). Pleasure is a reaction to pleasant sensory faculties, but individuals who suffer from a lack of sensory faculties will not be able to obtain these pleasures. The involuntary termination to pursue a normal, desirable pleasure is devastating for the individual’s natural growth, and modern societal expectations such as education and work would generate more suffering. Transhumanism aims to restore human’s natural tendency to pursue happiness and provide necessary motivation to acquire meaningful and virtuous happiness. Bostrom argues, “We can value other things than ourselves, or we might regard it as satisfactory if some parts or aspects of ourselves survive and flourish and if that entails giving up some parts of ourselves such that we no longer count as being the same person” (NB 5). Transhumanism hopes to use technologies and science to eliminate vices that most people think are too painful to remove, and provide necessary tools to end suffering. As a result, humanity will be protected under great impacts of virtuous practices and positive social interactions; such accomplishment creates the ultimate happiness because every individual naturally pursuits virtuous pleasure.
Transhumanism echoes Aristotle’s relationship between societal laws and personal choice. Bostrom states,
“technological means necessary for venturing into the posthuman space are made available to those who wish to use them, and that society be organized in such a manner that such explorations can be undertaken without causing unacceptable damage to the social fabric and without imposing unacceptable existential risks” (NB 5).
Bostrom understands the existential risks of using technology and science, but he argues that such risks can be avoided if the society responsibly approaches technological incorporations. One method is to respect majority standards and establish universal societal laws. Bostrom claims, “Our ability to implement responsible decisions can be improved by expanding the rule of law and democracy on the international plane” (NB 7). A democratic approach to transhumanism will create sufficient limitations and establish moral ground; these standards will ensure public safety but also punish intolerable and irresponsible actions. After creating a solid legal system around human enhancements, society should accelerate research and production. Bostrom advocates for wide access to human enhancement technologies; Bostrom claims, “because it might increase the range of the posthuman realm that gets explored; and to alleviate human suffering on as wide a scale as possible” (NB 6). Wide access to enhancement technologies give each individual a choice to improve their capacities; exploring the posthuman realm is only effective and efficient if more people commit and participate. Meanwhile, wide access to technologies will also diminish inequality; the power of posthumans can frequently be checked and balanced by other unbiased posthumans. Lastly, wide access promotes individual interest and happiness. Bostrom mentions, “transhumanists typically place emphasis on individual freedom and individual choice in the area of enhancement technologies. Humans differ widely in their conceptions of what their own perfection or improvement would consist in” (NB 7). It would be immoral for laws to create a single standard for everyone to conform because everyone is unique; each person is defined by their own characteristics and experiences. As a result, laws will only protect and ensure safety and morality, while individual choices should dictate how each person will enhance themselves.
Aristotle suggests that the purpose of life for any human is to constantly learn and practice virtuous habits to improve their own morality and personality and physical strength.. Aristotle thinks that through virtuous improvements, humans will acquire the greatest happiness. Aristotle believes that the society should be regulated by laws to direct citizens to become virtuous; the laws should influence how citizens make their personal choice, but they should not tell exactly how and when each choice should be made. Nick Bostrom’s transhumanism reflects many core values of Aristotle. Transhumanism aims to increase the basic capabilities of human beings through the use of modern science and technologies. These human enhancements and transhumanist values will bring the greatest joy for individuals and the entire society. Bostrom also supports expansion of laws to direct transhumanists and to ensure responsibility, but the society should also promote wide access to enhancement technologies and encourage individual choice.